{"id":24,"date":"2019-06-27T09:27:09","date_gmt":"2019-06-27T09:27:09","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/psconsultancy.in\/blog\/?p=24"},"modified":"2019-06-27T09:27:09","modified_gmt":"2019-06-27T09:27:09","slug":"ielts-grammar-explanation-features-of-discourse-2019","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/psconsultancy.in\/blog\/2019\/06\/27\/ielts-grammar-explanation-features-of-discourse-2019\/","title":{"rendered":"IELTS GRAMMAR EXPLANATION: Features of discourse 2019"},"content":{"rendered":"\n

GRAMMAR EXPLANATION:\nFeatures of discourse<\/strong><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

There are several principles and conventions which we follow in\ndiscourse (texts or conversations). This unit looks at how we organise\ninformation when we speak or write and the implications of this for word order,\ngrammar and vocabulary. The unit goes on to describe other discourse features\nsuch as the use of linking words between sentences, stylistic devices and the\nchoice of words appropriate to their context of use.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

  1. ORDERING INFORMATION<\/strong><\/li><\/ol>\n\n\n\n

    1A. The information\nprinciple<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    When speaking in English we usually sequence words so that we\nmove from something known (already mentioned or obvious from the context) at\nthe beginning of the sentence to something new at the end:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    (in these examples, known information is\u00a0underlined, new information is in\u00a0bold<\/strong>)<\/p>\n\n\n\n
    http:\/\/ecsielts.com\/<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
    http:\/\/ecsielts.com\/ielts-coaching-chennai<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
    http:\/\/ecsielts.in\/<\/a><\/td><\/tr>
    <\/td><\/tr><\/tbody><\/table>\n\n\n\n

     \u2018Do you know\nwhere John<\/strong> is?\u2019<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u2018He\u2019s in the\ngarden<\/strong>.\u2019<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

     <\/em>Notice\nhow the pronoun He<\/em> refers\nback to John<\/em>, this\nkind of economic use of language is called \u2018cohesion\u2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    When\u00a0writing\u00a0in English we usually organise the information in the same way that we do in speaking. Starting sentences with information which relates back to something already mentioned helps the text to \u2018flow\u2019 more smoothly and makes it easier for the reader to understand it:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Another striking\nfeature of the capital\u2019s squares and parks are the plane trees<\/strong>. The\nplane tree can reach 35 metres in height<\/strong> and\nhas leaves similar to those of the maple<\/strong>. It has\na vigorous and robust habit<\/strong> and is highly resistant to\ncold and air pollution<\/strong>. These features make it an\nideal choice for city parks in northern Europe.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    We do not usually put new information at the beginning.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1B. The end-weight\nprinciple<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In English we prefer to put long and complex phrases at the end\nof a sentence. English prefers sentences to be \u2018light\u2019 at the beginning (before\nthe main verb) and \u2018heavy\u2019 at the end. Long complex clauses also often contain\nnew information, so this principle and the information principle reinforce each\nother:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    A striking feature of the\ncentral areas of the capital are the elegant classical squares which\nwere originally laid out by aristocratic developers in the eighteenth century.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Sentences with a heavy clause at the beginning can seem clumsy\nand be difficult to understand:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    [The elegant classical\nsquares which were originally laid out by aristocratic developers in the\neighteenth century<\/strong> are a striking feature of the central areas of the\ncapital.<\/em> ]\u2003<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Note: But the information principle is more important in text\nthan the end-weight principle, so we can put a heavy clause at the beginning of\na sentence if it contains familiar information linking it to the preceding\ntext:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    London has many public\nparks and squares which date from previous centuries. The elegant\nclassical squares which were originally laid out by aristocratic developers in\nthe eighteenth century <\/strong>are a striking feature of the central areas of\nthe capital.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1C. Focus<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In English we can show which part of a sentence or clause\ncontains the most important point or \u2018focus\u2019 by moving the important point to\nthe beginning or end of the sentence \u2013 these are the two positions which appear\nmost important to a reader or listener.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In this example Jim<\/em> and nightclub<\/em> are the focus \u2013 they seem the most\nimportant issues:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Jim<\/em><\/strong> invited Lucy to the nightclub<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    If we want to put the focus on an item that doesn\u2019t naturally\ncome at the beginning or end of the sentence (e.g. Lucy) we have to manipulate\nthe grammar to bring the item to the front focus position. We call this\n\u2018fronting\u2019. For example, we can use cleft sentences:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    It was Lucy <\/em><\/strong>that Jim invited to the nightclub.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Lucy <\/em><\/strong>was the girl that Jim invited to the nightclub.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Similarly, we can give focus to something by moving it into the\nend focus position:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The girl that Jim invited\nto the nightclub was Lucy.<\/strong><\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1D. Contrast and emphasis<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    We sometimes need to break the principles of word order to\ncreate effects of emphasis and contrast. Because word order in English is\nusually fixed, we can emphasise something by moving it to an unfamiliar\nposition. We often do this with adverbial expressions, objects and complements,\nand that <\/em>and to<\/em> infinitive phrases:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The facade of the house\nwas blank and austere. [But it was ornate and luxurious inside<\/strong>] <\/em>=>But inside<\/strong> it was ornate and luxurious<\/em>.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    [I may be old<\/strong>],\nbut I\u2019m not stupid. <\/em>=> Old <\/strong>I\nmay be. but I\u2019m not stupid.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Priscilla invariably\nrejected impoverished suitors. [Her only ambition was to marry for\nmoney<\/strong>] <\/em>=> To marry for\nmoney<\/strong> was her only ambition.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    1E. Manipulating grammar\nand vocabulary<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    In order to follow the ordering principles when we are writing\nwe have to choose suitable vocabulary and grammar. As the subject usually comes\nat the beginning of a sentence in English the simplest way to organise a sentence\nis to choose a subject which links with the previous information:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Whenever possible, we\npack all our furniture in flat packages<\/strong> [Transport<\/strong> becomes\ncheaper because less space is taken up by a flat pack<\/strong> than a\nbulky one.] <\/em>=> A flat<\/strong> pack\ntakes up less space than a bulky one, which means that transport becomes\ncheaper.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    We sometimes use a noun which summarises the previous\ninformation:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    The rioters threw petrol\nbombs at the embassy. The situation<\/strong> was getting out of hand.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    We can choose alternative verbs or use the passive so that the\nappropriate subject comes at the beginning:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Our neighbours got a good\nprice for their car [The local garage bought it from them.]<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    => They sold it to a local\ngarage.\/It was bought by a local garage.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    \u2018Guernica\u2019 is a wonderful\nexample of cubist art. [In 1937 Picasso painted it.]<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    =>  It was\npainted by Picasso in 1937.\u2003<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    We can also use introductory it and participle and infinitive\nphrases to put the familiar information at the beginning and new information at\nthe end:<\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Fleming\u2019s behaviour was\ninexplicable. It was hard to believe<\/strong> that he had become this\nsavage with a bare knife.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n

    Steve went home. Walking\ntowards his door,<\/strong> he noticed a piece of paper left on the doorstep.<\/em><\/p>\n\n\n\n